The Concept of al-Adhā (Harassment) in the Qur’an: Toward Deriving Principles of Moral Education

 1. Introduction

In the Holy Qur’an, the concept of al-adhā (harassment) emerges as one of the key notions in the domain of human and moral relations. This study aims to examine the semantic structure of this term in the Qur’an and to analyze its various usages across different verses. The primary objective of this research is to derive principles of moral education through a semantic and functional exploration of the term al-adhā in the Qur’anic context. The study endeavors to identify and investigate the diverse contexts in which this term appears, with the goal of attaining a more profound understanding of the principles of moral education related to this concept in the Qur’an, thereby offering practical insights for enhancing human interactions based on Qur’anic teachings.

The central focus of this study is to extract usage patterns of key terms related to harassment from an educational perspective within the Qur’anic framework. This is achieved through a detailed analysis of the recurring keywords associated with harassment in the Qur’an. Based on this theoretical and conceptual framework, the study aims to derive educational implications for educators, particularly regarding the moral upbringing of future generations.

Several key points underscore the necessity of this research. First, it adopts an educational lens for reading the Qur’an to infer principles of moral education. Second, it employs a rational analysis of the keyword harassment to develop a relevant theoretical and conceptual model. This model can form the basis for deriving moral educational principles, thereby enriching pedagogical foundations grounded in religious teachings. Furthermore, the study’s focus on extracting overarching theoretical and conceptual frameworks from the Qur’an—through the focused analysis of specific keywords—represents a novel approach that could open new avenues for contemporary Qur’anic studies.

The word al-adhā refers to any harassment inflicted upon an individual, whether physical or spiritual, worldly or otherworldly (al-Rāghib al-Iṣfahānī 1991, 113). It has also been stated that al-adhā means anything from which one experiences harm or harassment (al-Farāhīdī 1988, 8:206; al-Azharī 2001, 15:39; Ibn Manẓūr 1993, 14:27). The root of al-adhā is “ʾ,Dh,Y” which signifies something disliked and unpleasant to a person. Consequently, al-īdhāʾ denotes the act of causing something hated or disliked, and al-taʾadhdhī describes the state experienced by a person upon receiving something unpleasant. Al-adhā is the verbal noun derived from this root. However, it has been employed to refer broadly to anything that causes harm or harassment (Ibn Fāris 1979, 1:78; Muṣṭafawī 1989, 1:72).

In the Qur’an, the term al-adhā is associated with distinct legal rulings and can be explored from sociological, ethical, and psychological perspectives. In psychology, it is addressed under categories such as self-harm and harm to others. This study examines the term al-adhā and its derivatives within this analytical framework. It is important to note that just as general engagement with the Qur’an allows one to extract educational principles for human life, similarly, from a focused perspective, by analyzing patterns of Qur’anic words, categorizing, and organizing them, we can advance towards a life-affirming educational framework. To this end, the word al-adhā, one of the frequently mentioned terms in the Qur’an, has been examined here from an educational perspective.

Based on this understanding and by considering the theoretical and cognitive foundations related to the word harassment and its usage patterns in the Qur’an, it becomes possible to derive principles for moral education. These principles not only support educators in fulfilling their moral responsibilities but can also serve as strategic guidelines throughout the educational process. Teaching and learning become genuinely fruitful when educators’ tasks and responsibilities are integrated with both scientific and religious foundations, thus providing a strong and reliable framework for educational activities. In light of the above, this study aims to extract a theoretical and conceptual model related to the keyword al-adhā through a comprehensive examination of all relevant Qur’anic verses, with the goal of deducing essential principles for moral education. Accordingly, the research questions are as follows:

• How is the term al-adhā (harassment) conceptually and theoretically constructed within the Qur’anic discourse?
• What moral educational principles can be systematically derived from the Qur’anic conceptual model of al-adhā?

2. Literature Review

The study of Qur’anic keywords has consistently attracted the attention of researchers and scholars. However, approaching the keyword al-adhā (harassment) from the angle of extracting its theoretical and conceptual model is a perspective that has received comparatively less attention. Moreover, the attempt to establish a relationship between this keyword and the principles of moral education is a subject not previously addressed in academic literature. Upon reviewing the existing body of research, no study was found that directly investigates the concept of al-adhā in the Qur’an. Nonetheless, the following works, while not directly aligned, are relevant due to their focus on Qur’anic terminology or conceptual parallels with the present topic:

Narimani et al. (2022) assert that by analyzing the terms maraḍ, adhā, ḍarar and suqm using dictionary sources, the Qur’an, and exegetical works, the differences between the terms have been clarified and their non-interchangeability has been established. This conceptual differentiation shows that maraḍ refers to physical illness, ḍurr indicates severe financial distress and the loss of children, al-adhā also connotes anxiety and spiritual disturbance arising from change, and suqm implies hesitation and doubt. Based on this analysis, in addition to dispelling misconceptions about divine prophets, aspects of the scientific miraculousness of the Qur’an and its respect for women are also highlighted.

Bashiri (2022), in his thesis titled “Harassment of God, the Prophets, and the Ahl al-Bayt (PBUTH) and Its Examples in the Qur’an and Hadith,” argues that among the attributes that lead individuals to ruin is the act of harassment toward others. Any form of harassment against living beings is considered reprehensible and carries both worldly and eschatological consequences, depending on the status of the one being harassed. Accordingly, harassment of God, the Prophets, and the Ahl al-Bayt is regarded as the most severe form and entails the most serious worldly and spiritual punishments. Therefore, understanding the concept and examples of such harassment is essential for cultivating a greater sense of responsibility and ethical sensitivity.

In her article, “Harassment, Seclusion, and the Status of Women in the Workplace: An Islamic and International Human Rights Perspective,” Sarah Balto (2020) discusses the intersection of Islamic jurisprudence and international human rights law concerning the harassment of women in the workplace. She concludes that gender relations and the structure of the workplace in Islamic societies differ significantly from those in Western contexts due to religious, social, and cultural traditions. In many Muslim societies, women live in patriarchal cultures where a woman’s honor is considered sacred.

A review of the existing literature reveals that the present study introduces an innovative perspective in several key areas: it offers a new approach to the concept of harassment by analyzing its theoretical and conceptual model; it categorizes this model based on the concepts extracted from the Qur’anic verses related to the term; it clarifies the theoretical and conceptual framework of the term harassment for a more comprehensive understanding; and it explains the principles of moral education from an educational standpoint, focusing on how harassment is treated in the Qur’an.

3. Research Methodology

Given the multidimensional nature of the topic, this study employs a combination of qualitative methods for data collection, analysis, and coding. In the initial phase, a descriptive phenomenological approach is used to examine the verses of the Holy Qur’an. Phenomenology is a qualitative method that seeks to uncover the essential and unchanging nature of a given phenomenon (Langdridge 2007). The steps involved in this method are as follows: Formulation of a research question based on the model “What is the essential nature of this phenomenon?”; Purposeful sampling; Data collection; Data analysis (Abedi 2009).

These steps are not strictly linear and may be applied recursively. Based on these steps, the following research question was formulated: How is the word al-adhā used in the Qur’an? Next, a purposeful sampling was conducted until theoretical saturation was reached, which in the current study required reading all Qur’anic verses related to the keyword al-adhā. In the next step, data collection was performed using library research methods, primarily by referencing the Qur’anic text. Finally, for data analysis, the MAXQDAY software (version 3–12PORO) was employed.

This study applied the descriptive phenomenological method in three stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. Initially, primary codes were assigned to various elements of the data. These codes, which are derived from the extracted verses, were then grouped in two ways. First, multiple primary codes were placed in a single category and assigned a new label. Then, multiple primary codes were nested under a broader parent code. Together, these codes form main categories and subcategories, a process known as open coding. Following this, axial coding was conducted. Axial coding involves establishing connections among categories and organizing them under a more general heading. The software facilitated this process by identifying relationships among categories, which eventually led to the formulation of hypotheses, a phase referred to as selective coding. Through selective coding, categories were refined, and a theoretical framework was constructed (Corbin & Strauss 1990). At this stage, the pattern of usage of the word al-adhā in the Qur’an was identified in terms of five main categories. In the final stage, a comparative analysis of the open and axial codes was conducted using the qualitative content analysis method in an inductive manner to extract the relevant educational principles. The stages and application of this method are as follows:

1. Determining the unit of analysis: The unit of analysis refers to the object or subject upon which the analysis is focused. In qualitative content analysis, this is typically the theme, which represents a specific meaning derived from a word, sentence, or clause (Momeni Rad 2013; Marouf & Yusefzadeh 2009). In this study, the theme served as the unit of analysis for the Qur’anic verses.
2. Developing a categorization system: The study employed an inductive categorization system. In this approach, categories are first identified, and then data are extracted from the text in accordance with these categories, in a step-by-step process (Mayering 2014).
3. Analyzing and interpreting the text: In this phase, the researcher examined the content with a deep interpretive lens to uncover implicit meanings (Jankowski & Jensen 2002). Through these three steps—theme extraction, categorization, and interpretive analysis—the educational principles presented in this study were ultimately derived.

4. Statistical and Descriptive Findings

In the present study, the open codes extracted from the Qur’an were presented in the form of tables and visual charts using MAXQDA software. This method of coding and visualization facilitates a clearer understanding of content types and distributions for researchers. Initially, all verses containing the word al-adhā and its derivatives were identified and examined. Subsequently, verses with overlapping concepts or repeated expressions were excluded, and a theoretical model was developed based on the remaining verses. The term “theoretical model” here refers to the categorization of related verses into general thematic groupings and the analysis of interrelations among them. Table 1 represents the applications of the term al-adhā in Qur’anic verses based on open coding results using MAXQDA software.

Table 1. The applications of the term al-adhā in Qur’anic verses based on open coding results using MAXQDA software

The categorization of applications of the term al-adhā in Qur’anic verses is visually represented in figure 1.

Figure 1. Categorization of applications of al-adhā (harassment) in Qur’anic verses

Table 2 presents representative verses for each categorization of harassment, demonstrating the semantic range and contextual diversity of al-adhā.

Table 2. Representative verses for each type of harassment associated with selected open codes

5. Principles of Moral Education Derived from the Concept of Harassment

Religion, fundamentally, is a system for the moral and spiritual education of humanity. From this perspective, Qur’anic keywords can serve as a meaningful basis for deriving educational principles applicable to various contexts and populations. Such analyses serve both religious and pedagogical purposes, offering theoretical foundations for practical educational efforts. Teachers, in particular, can benefit from insights and solutions grounded in divine revelation. Accordingly, following the development of the theoretical and conceptual model of the term harassment and the classification of the related Qur’anic verses, several moral-educational principles can be extracted.

5.1. Language as a Moral Force in Ethical Education

In the discussion on al-adhā, the distributional chart of the extracted data reveals that verbal harassment appears more frequently than behavioral forms, highlighting the moral weight of speech in Qur’anic ethics (Figure 2). This data indicates the significant and miraculous nature inherent in speech. Language, when employed in the service of truth, becomes, in the words of Florence Scovel Shinn, “Your word is your wand” (Shinn 2020); yet when used in the service of falsehood, it becomes, as narrated, “A slip of the tongue is worse than the wound of a spear, and the most destructive calamity” (Reyshahri 2010, 5:147).

 Figure 2. Distribution of applications of al-adhā (harassment) in Qur’anic verses

Three core weaknesses in moral education can be identified concerning the relationship between offensive speech and ethical cultivation. First, there is an underestimation of the role of language in moral upbringing, despite it being the primary instrument for either salvation or ruin. Second, there is a lack of training focused on employing language positively. Third, there is a weakness in understanding the role of both speech and silence as two sides of the same coin in communication.

In moral education—whether within the family structure or in educational and cultural institutions—the first and foremost challenge is the audience’s unfamiliarity with the role of language in interpersonal interaction and ultimately in determining one’s worldly and spiritual destiny. Neither educational approaches aimed at conveying knowledge nor those focused on ethical reminders have adequately addressed the linguistic dimensions of morality. This, despite reports such as the Prophet Muhammad’s (PBUH) statement: “Most of those who enter Hell do so because of their tongues” (al-Ghazālī 2014, 3: 94), or another narration in which the human tongue is described as addressing the body each morning, saying: “How are you?” The limbs respond, “If you leave us alone, we will be fine,” and they implore the tongue: “Fear God! For we are rewarded or punished because of you” (Ibn Bābawayh 2002).

Genuine and effective moral education must not only succeed in explaining ethical propositions but also clarify the prioritization of ethical issues and critical moments for its audience. In addition to clarifying the role of speech in shaping human destiny—which forms the lower threshold of moral education by encouraging the avoidance of harmful and abusive language—another pedagogical approach must also be adopted. This higher level of moral training aims at fostering the use of language for constructive and positive purposes: to exert influence, educate, speak wisely, express affection, and so on. The first step in this process is understanding that good speech is not reserved only for family or friends; it must be universally applied. As noted in the verse “Speak kindly to people” (Q. 2:83), this directive applies to all people, whether believers or opponents. A believer smiles at co-religionists and speaks to adversaries with tolerance so that they might be drawn to faith—or, if not, at least be prevented from acting harmfully toward the believer and his fellow faithful (Nūrī 1988, 12: 261).

Another crucial point after defining the scope of positive speech is understanding how to speak well. The qualities of wise, affectionate, tolerant, or otherwise constructive language, and the manner and context of their application, are often missing links in moral training. The absence of this training not only leaves some individuals entirely uninformed about the role of speech but also confuses those who are aware of its significance yet struggle with applying appropriate communicative methods in diverse social contexts. Without proper educational planning to address these gaps, moral instruction risks producing individuals who, despite desiring to be ethically sound, lack the models and discipline to practice moral speech consistently.

Finally, at the highest level of verbal moral training lies the understanding of the relationship between speech and silence—an often overlooked and underdeveloped dimension of moral education. Questions such as when speaking is appropriate, when silence is preferable, and what the respective benefits of each are, remain largely unexplored. Neglecting this aspect of moral education can result in a multitude of practical challenges in daily life. People may fail to recognize the origin of their missteps or moral failings. Countless are the silences that could have prevented hurtful words, and equally numerous are the ill-timed or misguided utterances that have caused others pain. The realm of moral discourse is expansive and nuanced. Ignoring its complexities may even cause those who claim religious devotion to fall victim to verbal transgressions—sarcasm, verbal harassment, or inappropriate remarks—thus undermining the very foundations of moral training.

5.2. A Motivational Approach to Hardships

While the previous principle dealt with the process of moral education regarding the act of harming others—especially verbal harassment—this principle focuses on how one should confront harassment, particularly verbal abuse. In general, the Qur’anic keywords associated with facing harm—such as ṣabr (patience), iʿrāḍ (avoidance), rajāʾ (hope), and tawakkul (trust in God)—illuminate the broader framework of ethical education. They indicate that responding to harassment from others is not meant to be reactive or retaliatory. In other words, an approach rooted in vengeance, impatience, intolerance, or complaint reflects a weakness in proper moral upbringing.

This observation reveals that moral education often fails to prepare individuals both in recognizing how to face harassment and in managing their own responses to such harassment. The challenge deepens when moral education is tasked with drawing a clear line between non-retaliatory conduct and submission to injustice. Furthermore, it must delineate the boundary between tawakkul (trust in God) and passivity. That is, while one should trust in divine wisdom, one must not allow such trust to justify inaction or resignation to oppression. The matter is delicate. On one hand, believers are instructed to adopt a faithful and trusting attitude in the face of worldly hardships, as encapsulated in the verse “Indeed, with hardship comes ease” (Q. 94:6). On the other hand, ethical conduct demands that one refrain from retaliation when harmed by fellow believers, yet avoid passive tolerance in the face of injustice inflicted by non-believers or oppressors. The distinction between friend and foe, and the nature of harm inflicted by each, must be discerned. Even in dealing with adversaries, if there exists a possibility for moral or reformative engagement, that path should be prioritized.

These complexities demonstrate that moral education in this context is fraught with nuanced and critical distinctions. Failure to articulate and internalize them leads to a moral framework that is weak, inconsistent, and prone to error. At a higher level, this approach calls for fostering a positive outlook on hardship itself. In contrast to the previous stage, where harassment is seen as destructive but ṣabr and tawakkul render it constructive, this stage emphasizes that some forms of hardship are inherently beneficial. These include trials endured in the path of God or while practicing divine commandments, which contribute directly to the spiritual and moral growth of individuals and communities. Even physical discomforts that lead to long-term health and well-being can be considered positive hardships.

This broader outlook imposes a further responsibility on moral education: to elevate the individual’s perspective beyond the immediate appearance of events, encouraging a vision that discerns hidden benefits—whether in the hereafter or in long-term worldly outcomes. This goal can be achieved by cultivating an analytical view of divine providence, internalizing belief in the wisdom, mercy, and goodness embedded in divine acts, and nurturing a positive mindset toward life’s challenges. In doing so, the mission of moral education becomes not only more complex but also significantly more profound.

5.3. Adopting the Perspective of Others

The Qur’an states: “But when you have eaten, disperse without lingering for conversation. Such behavior annoys the Prophet” (Q 33:53). This verse highlights a more refined level in moral education. Beyond the foundational principle that one must avoid causing harassment to others—especially verbal harassment—this higher ethical standard encourages the moral subject to view their words and behavior through the lens of others’ perspectives. Even if a certain action is not explicitly forbidden by law (sharʿ) or ethics, it should be avoided if it causes discomfort or displeasure to others.

The criterion for recognizing such cases—where religious or ethical rulings remain silent—is articulated in the universal moral maxim attributed to Imam ʿAlī: “Like for others what you like for yourself, and dislike for others what you dislike for yourself” (Reyshahri 2010, 3:179). Hence, when it comes to behavioral forms of harassment, legal and ethical boundaries alone are not sufficient. Some actions, though technically permissible, may leave a negative emotional or psychological impact on others. These must also be avoided according to the moral principle of non-harm and empathetic reciprocity.

Ultimately, this principle—alongside the previous two—reveals that moral education regarding harassment is challenged by various weaknesses and oversights. Neglecting these nuances weakens social conduct. Moreover, it is evident that the moral framework in this regard goes beyond the mere limits of religious rulings. This broader scope demands more sophisticated planning and deeper attention within the domain of moral education.

5.4. Focusing on the Outcomes of Behavioral Layers

An analysis of the Qur’anic data (especially regarding the negative outcomes of harassment) reveals a new educational perspective: the necessity of attending to the layered consequences of human actions. While the structure of creation operates according to cause and effect, behavioral consequences in social and ethical contexts do not always appear immediately, nor do they necessarily correspond in form or timing to the original action.

When someone harms another, the consequences will inevitably follow according to divine causality. However, these consequences may not manifest instantly or in a manner visibly linked to the original act. Many instances of verbal or emotional harm appear to pass without visible repercussions. It is the critical responsibility of moral education to illuminate this reality in light of the verse: “So whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it” (Q 99:8). Even the smallest instance of harm—verbal, emotional, or physical—has consequences in either this world or the hereafter. For example, giving charity accompanied by verbal reproach invalidates the act of charity itself. On deeper levels, negative consequences such as spiritual misguidance, punishment, or deprivation from divine mercy can ensue, corresponding—though not always directly—to the type and severity of harassment caused.

Therefore, moral education must present divine laws as a comprehensive system. If the principle of cause and effect is taught, its complement—such as the spiritual equivalent of karma—must also be explained. It must be clarified that divine response does not always mirror the form of human action. A sharp tongue, for instance, might return to its source in the form of illness or affliction. The central and immutable principle remains:

So whoever does an atom's weight of good will see it and whoever does an atom's weight of evil will see it (Q. 99: 7-8).

5.5. A Facilitative Approach Regarding Harassment

One may ask, in light of the preceding principles: does God, through creation, law, or decree, intend to cause human suffering? The answer is provided by both the Qur’anic analysis of hardship and the well-known maxim: “Islam is a religion of ease” (al-Suyūṭī 1983, 1:192). Harm, in and of itself, is not a divine objective; rather, creation is aimed at human growth and perfection. Therefore, when hardship or harm results in spiritual development and ethical refinement, it is valued and purposeful. But when harm leads only to rigidity, alienation, or spiritual fatigue without any corresponding growth, moral education—and religion itself—must adopt a more facilitative, compassionate stance.

This means that moral education must carefully consider the capacities of individuals and should not impose hardship that yields no formative value. Based on the insights of the first principle (regarding proper understanding of harassment) and in light of the results of the preceding sections, the educational approach to hardship and harm should be schematized as follows (figure 3).

Figure 3. Educational model outlining Qur’anic educational approaches to various forms of harassment

Finally, the principles outlined above may be summarized and visually synthesized into the following diagram (figure 4), which maps out the key dimensions and guidelines of each moral approach to hardship and harassment.

Figure 4. Schematic summary of principles of moral education based on the ethical approaches to harassment in the Qur’an

6. Conclusion

This study sought to examine the conceptual and theoretical model of the Qur’anic term al-adhā (harassment) and explore its implications for moral education. In response to the first research question—“What is the theoretical and conceptual model of the term al-adhā in the Qur’an?”—the findings indicate that the conceptual framework of al-adhā can be classified into five overarching categories, each comprising multiple subcategories. Types of harassment are divided into verbal and behavioral forms. Verbal harassment, according to the Qur’an, includes slander, denial, verbal abuse and lying. Responses to harassment are categorized into prescriptive and prohibitive reactions. The prescriptive responses include patience, reliance on God, observing divine boundaries, and maintaining hope; while the prohibitive response is intolerance or lack of endurance. Consequences of harassment are divided into positive and negative outcomes. Positive outcomes include divine reward and assistance, while negative ones comprise deprivation from guidance, invalidation of charity, divine punishment, and curse. The Relationship between harassment and Facilitation encompasses factors such as illness or environmental circumstances which may mitigate the moral burden of harm. Positive harassment refers to suffering endured for the sake of God, commitment to divine commandments, and natural or inevitable hardships.

The second research question—“Based on the theoretical and conceptual model of al-adhā in the Qur’an, what educational principles can be derived for moral education?”—is addressed through five key moral-educational approaches: the approach of recognizing the importance of language as a moral force in ethical education; a motivational approach toward hardship; adopting the perspective of others; a focus on the layered outcomes of behavior; a facilitative approach in moral education, especially in contexts where harm might hinder spiritual growth.

The articulation of theoretical and conceptual frameworks for Qur’anic key terms can significantly contribute to understanding moral education at both macro and micro levels. At a macro level, it provides a solid foundation for exploring ethical principles, and at a micro level, it yields practical strategies for moral formation. What remains particularly essential in this process is that moral educational principles be extracted through a valid and rigorous methodology. In other words, any proposed educational framework must be grounded in comprehensive and holistic criteria, taking into account the complexity of human nature and the purpose of creation. Even when engaging with contemporary scientific theories or competing pedagogical models, the Qur’anic foundations may serve as evaluative benchmarks and effective filters for integrating or rejecting modern educational content.

As one of the frequently recurring and anthropologically significant terms in the Qur’an, al-adhā is deeply intertwined with human development and moral refinement. Understanding its conceptual dimensions is not only valuable for educators but also offers concrete, actionable guidelines for shaping moral character. The present study has made an initial effort toward this goal within its scope and limitations. To enrich this line of research, future studies are recommended to explore other key Qur’anic terms related to al-adhā, aiming to develop a more comprehensive conceptual and theoretical model and to extract further educational principles.